Ancient Chinese Invented Gunpowder

Ancient Chinese Invented Gunpowder Few substances in history have had as profound an effect on human history as gunpowder, yet its discovery in China was an accident. Contrary to myth, it was not simply used for fireworks but was put to military uses from its time of discovery. Eventually, this secret weapon leaked out to the rest of the medieval world. Chinese Alchemists Tinker With Saltpeter and Make Gunpowder Ancient alchemists in China spent centuries trying to discover an elixir of life that would render the user immortal. One important ingredient in many of the failed elixirs was saltpeter, also known as potassium nitrate. During the Tang Dynasty, around 850 A.D., an enterprising alchemist (whose name has been lost to history) mixed 75 parts saltpeter with 15 parts charcoal and 10 parts sulfur. This mixture had no discernable life-lengthening properties, but it did explode with a flash and a bang when exposed to an open flame. According to a text from that era, smoke and flames result, so that [the alchemists] hands and faces have been burnt, and even the whole house where they were working burned down. Use of Gunpowder in China Many western history books over the years have stated that the Chinese used this discovery only for fireworks, but that is not true. Song Dynasty military forces as early as 904 A.D. used gunpowder devices against their primary enemy, the Mongols. These weapons included flying fire (fei huo), an arrow with a burning tube of gunpowder attached to the shaft. Flying fire arrows were miniature rockets, which propelled themselves into enemy ranks and inspired terror among both men and horses. It must have seemed like fearsome magic to the first warriors who were confronted with the power of gunpowder. Other Song military applications of gunpowder included primitive hand grenades, poisonous gas shells, flamethrowers and landmines. The first artillery pieces were rocket tubes made from hollow bamboo shoots, but these were soon upgraded to cast metal. McGill University professor Robin Yates notes that the worlds first illustration of a cannon comes from Song China, in a painting from about 1127 A.D. This depiction was made a century and a half before Europeans began to manufacture artillery pieces. The Secret of Gunpowder Leaks Out of China By the mid- to late-eleventh century, the Song government had become concerned about gunpowder technology spreading to other countries. The sale of saltpeter to foreigners was banned in 1076. Nonetheless, knowledge of the miraculous substance was carried along the Silk Road to India, the Middle East, and Europe. In 1267, a European writer made reference to gunpowder, and by 1280 the first recipes for the explosive mixture were published in the west. Chinas secret was out. Down through the centuries, Chinese inventions have had a profound effect on human culture. Items like paper, the magnetic compass, and silk have diffused around the world. None of those inventions, however, have had quite the impact that gunpowder has, for good and for bad.

NONSTEROIDAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS Essays - Free Essays

NONSTEROIDAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS Essays - Free Essays NONSTEROIDAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS PAIN RELIEVING DRUGS AUTHOR [Pick the date] Pain relieving medications or better known as analgesics, are the type of drugs used to relieve pain. The analgesics work by either stopping the pain signals from reaching the brain or they alter the brains perception to these signals. These medications prevent the brain by not allowing the pain signals to be processed. Analgesics do not depend on anesthesia or any loss of consciousness to achieve their pain relieving goal. Since the process of pain is complex, there are different types of drugs that provide relief by acting in different mechanisms. The different types of analgesics can be categorized as follows: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) that act on substances in the body causing inflammation, pain, and fever. Corticosteroids are usually injected at the site of musculoskeletal injuries exerting powerful anti-inflammatory effects. Oral administration is also done to relieve pain from, for example, arthritis. Acetaminophen acts on the body's pain threshold by increasing it several folds having little or no effect on inflammation. Opioids (narcotic analgesics) act by modifying pain messages in the brain. Muscle relaxants produce sedative effect in the central nervous system thus, reducing pain from tense muscle groups. Anti-anxiety drugs work by reducing anxiety, relaxing muscles, and helping the patients cope with discomfort. Antidepressants, especially the tricyclics, reduce transmission of pain through the spinal cord. Anticonvulsant drugs relieve pain by stabilizing nerve cells. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are the choice of drugs for relieving pain as well as inflammation corresponding to conditions ranging from headaches to osteoarthritis. Aspirin, ibuprofen and naproxen are considered as the non prescription drugs that are available easily with any non-pharmaceutical retailer also. NSAIDs are useful in relieving pain related to arthritis, gout, muscle sprains and strains, trauma pain, headaches, eye pain, ear pain, dental pain, orofacial pain, neck pain, shoulder pain, back pain, arm and wrist pain, menstrual cramps, joint pain, leg pain, fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, complex regional pain syndrome etc. NSAIDs work by interfering in the production of prostaglandins, the chemicals responsible for promoting inflammation, pain and fever. They are also helpful in protecting stomach and intestinal lining from the damaging effects of acid. They are also helpful in activating blood platelets for blood clotting and promote normal kidney functions. Prostaglandins are produced by enzymes called cyclooxygenases (COX), which are of two types COX-1 and COX-2. Both these enzymes promote inflammation, pain and fever, but, only COX-1 produces prostaglandins that activates platelets and protect intestinal and stomach lining. Since, NSAIDs block these COX enzymes reducing inflammation, pain and fever; they cause ulcers in the stomach and intestine increasing the risk of bleeding. Other side effects of NSAIDs include stomach upset, drowsiness, dizziness, skin rashes, high blood pressure, nausea, abdominal pain, kidney or liver problems. All NSAIDs although have same mechanism of action but it is seen that individuals who do not respond to one type of this drug may respond to another one, reasons for which are still not known. NSAIDs differ in their potency, duration of action and their tendency to cause ulcers and cause bleeding as they all differ in their ability to inhibit COX-1 and COX-2. NSAIDs are shown in approximately 25% of all adverse drug reactions, the most common adverse reaction being GI irritation. A 3-fold increase in gastrointestinal hemorrhages is seen by using these drugs, although 10-fold estimates have also been reported in the literature. These drugs are not considered appropriate for people who suffer from stomach problems as these people are at a higher risk for stomach bleeding. Aspirin is the only NSAID drug which is not involved in increasing the risk of adverse cardiovascular events example heart attack or stroke. References: emedexpert.com/compare/pain-medications.shtml nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/painrelievers.html rxlist.com/pain_medications/drugs-condition.htm